Impact of Globalisation on Architecture

Impact of Globalisation on Architecture What is meant By the Term Globalisation, and How Does It Have an Impact on the Practice Of Architecture? Introduction In any age of change, debates on conflicting ideologies often dominate discussions. The struggle to adapt often results in shaping the social, political, economic and cultural paradigms. In architectural context and urban designs, much has been argued on the ideology of modernism and traditionalism and, more recently, on globalism and regionalism. These ideologies have been tacitly acknowledged, yet their practices have often been considered non-conforming. To effectively argue for an ideology such as globalism, one needs to take into consideration the consequences and impacts based on prevailing evidence, as well as deliberate on opposing views. In the following discussion, the researcher shall discuss globalization and its impact on architecture with reference to various architectural styles that are considered global and assert that globalization has positively affected architectural styles of the world. Discussion Globalization is an umbrella term that refers to a complex and universal phenomenon that has affected varied dimensions including economics, politics, science, history, geography, environment, culture, management, international relations, and professional practices etc. Depending on the context it is used in, globalization can be defined as the growing interdependence of the world’s people †¦ a process integrating not just the economy but culture, technology, and governance. People everywhere are becoming connected-affected by events in far corners of the world.† United Nations Development Program (1999:1). From this definition, one understands that globalization is not only a phenomenon that is understood and appreciated by Western cultures but it is also fast becoming embedded in other regions of the world. Globalization has a daunting influence over almost all aspects of public and private life (Kiggundu 2002). Consequently, it is not surprising that it has also proliferated to architectural practices as well. To understand the influence of globalization on architecture, one needs to first understand the influence of culture on architecture. According to Lewis (2002), architectural history is filled with movements of opposing cultural and aesthetic diversity, which form the basis for architectural philosophy and design ideology. This is because governments, companies and people of nations around the world are the main sponsors of architectural designs and styles, which they use to symbolize their rule and identity. Thus, the Romans developed the magnificent coliseums and temples with the view to depict their empires grandeur (Lewis 2002). The classical Roman architectural designs points to the hegemony of its people who have been the determinism of hierarchy and values of the Roman culture (Tzonis, Lefaivre and Stagno 2001). Furthermore, one also observes that the classical Roman style of architecture depicts cultural hegemony. This trend of cultural influence over architectural design is not isolated in history. During the 19th and 20th century, to establish their identities in colonies they set up, the French and English had controlled the architectural styles of many regions of the world including China, South East Asia, Africa and America. Monumental designs, which have been developed and set in these regions, speak of their colonial rule and changing policies. Regarding colonial cultural hegemony, Metcalf (1989 qt. Wright ) writes, Administrators hoped that preserving traditional status-hierarchies would buttress their own superimposed colonial order. Architects, in turn, acknowledging that resistance to new forms is often based on affections for familiar places, tried to evoke a sense of continuity with the local past in their designs. (Wright 9) After the two World Wars, economic decline and rise of national universalism led to capitalism. European and American architects, according to Lewis (2002), rebelled against the classicism and demanded a new regime for international designs to be adopted with the new industrial, technological, social and political order; hence, emerged the modernist style. Modernism, according to Ibelings (1998), formed the basis for building, during the post-war era. Modern architecture progressed with faith in reason. It introduced the concept of internationalization in architecture, whereby designs of offices, schools, hospitals and housing have been based on multifunction. This style, however, has been fast replaced by postmodernism in which concepts are set on universally accepted ideologies. The post-modern style has become more dominant, partly because of the deterioration of modernism and partly because modernism could not convey the language of people who inhabited buildings and houses built by modern architects. Buildings are to function as vehicles of ideas and activities within it (Ibelings 1998). They need to reflect the aesthetic and inspiration of the people who live in it. It is during this post-modern era that emerged the concept of universalism to express and accommodate symbols of technological development, national progress, economi c integration and internationalization. As a result, during the late 20th century, a wave of architectural styles emerged that reflected the age of globalization. This international style emerged which had been synonymous with standardization, systemization, mass production, functional logic and economies of scale. The new functional type of architectural design has adopted the global culture of commerce and design. The global architectural style triumphed over the historic classical as it is based on the rationale of universalization. The global architects argue that the stylistic buildings during the modern age surpass its classical, constructivist, modernist and colonial counterparts because it facilitates the vernacular expression and allows regional and aesthetic inspiration to integrate into designs (Umbach and Bernd 2005). The global consumers manifest their expectations and ideologies are influenced by market opportunities, business agendas, standardization, franchises, and brands. Buildings are characterized by skyscrapers, towers, malls and branded buildings. The Petronas Towers, Sears Towers, World Trade Centre, Shanghai World Financial Centre and Canary Wharf, for example, all depict consumerism and universalism. Thus, the global architectural style has come to dominate the global arena. The global architectural style has also come to influence the architectural practice. As architect firms cater to international markets, they expand to profit from far away markets, even though the majority are based in the Western countries. They base their designs on a general framework of globalization and post modernism. They are more influenced by the local cultures. Their designs often reflect both, the local elements and universal designs. Oriental buildings, for example, are often based on Feng Shui principles, even though the monument is based on technological and modern architecture. Similarly, high-rise buildings in the US will have used glass, stainless steel and such metals, which depict the nations industrial past. While the above discussion depicts a positive picture of globalization and its influence on architectural style, there are contenders to it as well. Anti-global forces, such as humanists, claim that globalization has eradicated that which is essentially cultural of a place. By introducing functional, standardization and open space urbanism, cities of the world have replaced their historical skyline with ugly steel and concrete. Furthermore, the efforts to standardize and systemize have eradicated cultural identity that is the essence of a nation or state. Instead, today architectural designs are dominated by political hegemony and economic dominance. Buildings of today, like the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, Dubai Airport and Thai Airports, all seem to belong to one style. Malls across the world, for instance, reflect similar functionality, devoid of humanism or cultural identity. Nevertheless, their argument cannot reason with the fact that global designs have purpose and help in conservation of the environment through effective utilization of spaces. It is this new style that provides habitation spaces without compromising land use (Scarpaci 2005; Umbach and Bernd 2005). Conclusion From the above discussion, it is clear that globalization has positively influenced architectural practices and styles. It reflects the culture of modernization, systemization, standardization and functional logic. It also depicts cultural integration, harmonization of spaces and universal consumerism. No doubt, the classical school of thought considers globalization of architecture as infringement over individuality and cultural identity. Nevertheless, they must contend that globalization has in fact alleviated localization through vernacular designs. The writer contends that globalization has replaced the individual aesthetic and cultural uniqueness. One must also acknowledge the fact that globalization has mass produced architecture that once had been a profession of individualism and unparalleled skills. Yet, globalization has benefited more through creative and functional architectural styles, as compared to the classical buildings that benefits a few group of high elites only. References Ibelings, H. (1998), Supermodernism: Architecture in the Age of Globalization, NAi Publishers. Kiggundu, M. N. (2002), Managing Globalization in Developing Countries and Transition Economies: Building Capacities for a Changing World. Praeger: Westport, CT. Lewis, R. K. (2002), Will Forces of Globalization Overwhelm Traditional Local Architecture? Washington Post. November 2. Metcalf, T. R. (1989), An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britains Raj. Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press. Scarpaci, J. L. (2005), Plazas and Barrios: Heritage Tourism and Globalization in the Latin American Centro Historico. Tucson: The U of Arizona. Tzonis, A., Lefaivre, L. and Stagno, B. (eds) (2001), Tropical Architecture: Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Academy Press. Umbach, M. and Bernd, H. (eds.) (2005), Vernacular Modernism: Heimat, Globalization, and the Built Environment. Stanford: Stanford University Press. UNDP. 1999. Human Development Report. 2 Vols. New York: UNDP and Oxford University Press Wright, G. (1991), The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press.

Water Pollutions Causes Effect And Solution Environmental Sciences Essay

Water Pollutions Causes Effect And Solution Environmental Sciences Essay Although industrialization plays an important role in developing the economics of a country, we cannot overlook the causes and effects that it brings to the society and environment, particular in water pollution. Therefore, in order to alleviate and eliminate the serious impact of water pollution, we have to know well about the causes and effects of water pollution in order to find the best solution to tackle this issue. In this essay, we are going to present the most significant cause and effect of water pollution and ways to solve this problem. There are several factors behind which cause the water pollution. One of the major causes is the waste from the industries. It is so common that most of the industries seem consider that the sea or rivers is a good place for them to dump the waste. Those wastes contain very harmful substances which cause the sea and rivers become poison. Another main reason that leads to the water pollution is sewage. Sewage is a kind of waste such as faeces or dirty water from home or factories which flows away through sewers. It happens since those people do not want to live in a polluted area or dumpsite. For example, most developing countries carry those sewages to water while most developed countries have flush toilet which can take sewage quickly away from their houses. Moreover, sometime sewage is drained directly to the rivers or sea which has bad effect to the human and diversity in marine life. Last but not least, oil pollution is also the major reason of water pollution. Today, oil polluti on becomes a serious problem to concern. Sometime, oil spill is spilled accidentally; however, most of the ships spill it to the sea on purpose. The spread of oil cause a serious problem to be worried due to the fact that it makes lots of pollution and death to all kind of species in the sea. For example, the biggest oil spill in Alaska which 44 million litter of oil were release into the pristine wilderness killed many species in the sea. Several animals were killed and several billion of fish were destroyed. (Wood ford Chris, 2006). In short, waste from industries, sewage, and oil pollution are the major causes that need to be concerned. There are two main negative effects that are caused by the industrial water pollution that mostly occurred in the industrialized countries and developing countries. First of all, water pollution effects on the human health. When the water that people consume for daily life become pollutant, it will effect directly on their health and lives. Commonly, people in over the world must need water in order to support their lives, but if the drinking water contain lots of chemical substances such as phosphates, sulfuric acid, acids, toxic metals, oil, pesticides, it will caused many serious diseases on their lives and health such as diarrhea, hepatitis, dysentery, cholera, blood disease, etc. (Chandramita, 2012). For example, people and mostly children who drink the water that contain chemical substance like Nitrates, they will face a risk to their health and death. Moreover, when people eat fish or food that takes from the water which contain pollutants, they will get sick. Lastly, water po llution effects on the marine lives and aquatic plants as well. Because when the industrial wastes flow through the sewage pipe into the river or lake, they can impact on the aquatic plants and marine lives that live at there. For common example, many species of fish need a minimum of 4-5 mg of dissolved oxygen so as to survive, otherwise, if the water contains chemical substances, those fish will die or reduce reproductive output and decrease the quantity. (Environmental Engineering Solution, 2008). In addition, the oil spilled is one another important that effect on the aquatic plants and marine lives. For example, there are many ships that spill the oil into the ocean or river, thus, the large number of marine lives die every year. Moreover, the aquatic plants like seaweed cannot grow in the polluted water as well. Prevention is better than cure. The best possible way ever to alleviate and eliminate water pollution from industries is prevention. First of all, Industry should clean up their waste before disposing it. In elaborate, they should have a proper check on the type of the waste that they are going to dispose of and segregate the harmful and non-harmful waste. Then, they have to clean up the non-harmful sewage before sending it to the sewage and dispose the toxic chemical waste properly. By doing these, it will help to decrease the polluted level of chemical material that is needed in production when they dispose it into water (Asaff, 2012). Second of all, In order to protect our water from being polluted, we have to ensure that the water protection act has its proven effect and to enforce the law of water protection; Clean Water Act for example, in order to raise the awareness of the public and restrict the industry from doing whatever they want without concerning on the effect of their action (Natural Resources Defense Council, n.d.). Last but not least, since oil is considered as one of the deadly water pollution, industry should get rid of such problem by having a regular check on their machine in order to prevent the leakage that is stemmed by the improper usage or machine breakdown. Furthermore, factory has to properly disposed the oil that they use and clean up all of the that is resulted by oil leaks (Asaff, 2012). In Conclusion, if the suggested solution above is fully implemented, water pollution will be alleviated. As a result, the world will be a better place to live in and less pollution will be harmful to all living things on Earth. References: Chandramita, B. (2012). Industrial water pollution. Water pollution solutions. Retrieved from: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/industrial-water-pollution.html Environmental Engineering Solution. (2008). Human health vis-a-vis degradation of global environment. Retrieved from: http://environmentengineering.blogspot.com/2008/05/human-health-vis-vis-degradation-of.html Natural Resources Defense Council. (n.d.). Promoting water efficiency. Retrieved December 19, 2012 from: http://www.nrdc.org/water/ Sarabeth A. (2012). How to stop water pollution. Retrieved December 19, 2012 from: http://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/Identify_the_Cause_of_Greenhouse_Effect

Raising the Bar †Los Angeles Kings :: Critical Evaluation Rhetorical Analysis

Raising the Bar – Los Angeles Kings Often times many hockey teams have a sprout of success and a sudden downfall, but in the end there is always next year. In the article titled Raising the Bar – Los Angeles Kings, by Andrew L. Robles, the reader is to assume that the Los Angeles Kings hockey team should be very successful in the upcoming few seasons. Andrew Robles’ motivation to write this article may have occurred for many reasons. First of all, he seems to be a hockey fan who feels strongly that the Kings will have a well played season. He seems to be informing the reader of the prospects the team has acquired, and the results he is expecting with the new coaches and players hired for the team. The writing seems to be a motivational piece that is trying to get the Kings’ fans to look forward to the upcoming year. With the information and detail given by the author, it is obvious that much time and effort was put into the article. Andrew Robles was able to arrange interviews with many different players, and was able to publish their thoughts on the upcoming season. This shows the audience, and I, that time was put into the article which makes me trust him and his knowledge of the team. That is important, because now that he has the audiences’ trust, they will believe what is written, as long as i t isn’t too farfetched. The article written shows many different modes of analysis, with one of these modes being the inductive argument. With all of the facts and expert opinions that support Andrew Robles, he comes to the conclusion that the Kings will be a good team this year. The tone taken by Robles is a very formal one, as he does not relate himself to the audience at all. Robles states his opinion and why he feels the way he does. I like this form of writing, as he is not trying to get a reaction out of me. He is stating why he feels the way he does, and what facts or reasoning he has behind that opinion.

Dictating Lies and Deception Essay -- Terrorism, Bush

September 11, 2001 marked a tragic day in the history of the United States; a terrorist attack had left the country shaken. It did not take long to determine those who were behind the attack and a call for retribution swept through the nation. Citizens in a wave of patriotism signed up for military service and the United States found resounding international support for their efforts in the war on terror. Little opposition was raised at the removal of the Taliban regime and there was much support for bringing Osama Bin Laden and the leaders of al-Qaeda to justice. Approval abroad diminished approximately a year and a half later when Afghanistan became a stepping stone to the administration’s larger ambition, the invasion of Iraq. The administration would invent several stories and in some cases remain silent of the truth where would prove positive for the Iraqi invasion. It seems they were willing to say anything to promote the largely unpopular and unnecessary war they were resolved on engaging in. Bush had been eager to go to war with Iraq from the moment he stepped into office and the administration's focus was chiefly on Iraq even before the war in Afghanistan had begun. In Where Men Win Glory, the text reveals that â€Å"in November 2001, President Bush and Vice President Cheney had instructed Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld to secretly create a detailed plan for the invasion of Iraq† (Krakauer 192). Though it is almost unthinkable, the United States had been attacked this very month by al-Qaeda. The government should have been duty bound on capturing Osama Bin Laden and disbanding the terrorist group al-Qaeda. Instead, they were fashioning Iraqi invasion plans. Krakauer establishes additional proof of this stating, â€Å"th... ...n Iraq to be over. Yet, the war was far from over and Iraqis were still fighting against what they perceived as an occupation of their country by the United States. As poignantly realized five years later when over 10,000 Iraqis assembled at the very location of the statues toppling for a truly historic event. The New York Times describes that â€Å"[the Iraqis] gathered in Baghdad’s Firdos Square †¦ to protest the security agreement with the United States that is scheduled for a vote† and â€Å"demonstrators hanged a black-hooded effigy of President Bush from a column with powerful symbolism: it supported the statue of Saddam Hussein that was toppled by American troops in April 2003† (Farrell et al.). In May of the following year the Bush Administration would revisit its previous devices to conceal the truth of the circumstances surrounding the death of Patrick Tillman.

Intolerance: Minority Group and Society Essay

1. What are some of the ways groups of people are identified? There are many ways that a group of people can be identified but the four criteria for classifying minority groups are race, ethnicity, religion, and gender. Race is mainly determined by the color of someone’s skin, hair (in some instances eyes), height, and bone structure of the human body: big head, narrow eyes, tall short. Ethnicity is determined by where you were born and raised and what cultural patterns. Religion and is determined by what your beliefs and religious group you are a part of. Gender is determined easily enough but it does matters if you are male or female for the fact that each is treated differently. Males seem to have it easy most of the time and woman are always treated as though they are weaker. These four criteria’s are the main ones but there are so many more such as age, disability status, physical appearance, and sexual orientation they all are used to group people. There is always another factor that is sometimes over looked and that is our appearance; skinny, fat and even what we wear are we well dressed and clean all of the time or are we in regular day to day clothes or are we dressed in rags torn, ripped and dirty clothing. Also there is the money factor how much does one have or don’t have to many people the money factor matters most people like to know that they know people with money. Are these people wealthy with more money than they will every need or do they just have enough or do they struggle or worse yet do they not have anything leaving them going from home to home or street to street or going to government and privet programs for help. 2. Why do people label and group other people? I have thought about this question and it made me realize that not only do people label and group other people but we also label ourselves putting ourselves in categories that please us. Plus it gives us our sense of belonging to something that most people â€Å"need† to feel. Getting back to the question; I think it is something that we all do whether we realize it or not. Labeling and grouping help people to determine who we should or who we should not interact with. It helps people and sometimes it does just the opposite and destroys people it’s like having a power a power to have some control over other people. I can almost see it in another time a man running through the streets with a label machine placing labels on everyone’s forehead yelling â€Å"You are who I say you are! † Scary thought! We constantly label people in a negative light due to difference of opinion due to religion, political view, sexual preference, parenting method you name it we do it, even children do this and it is not done intentionally they were not taught this, too me it almost seems like it is a defense mechanism keeping themselves even ourselves safe from what we may consider to be harmful. In the end people are just that â€Å"people† we are nothing more and nothing less. People label others either to feel empowered or to praise someone but in the end we are Human Beings and that is it. We may think and act differently but we are what we are and if people could just except that then the future might not ever have to deal with the positive and mainly the negative effects that come with being labeled and tossed into a group that was thought up by others. Resources Schaefer, R. T. (2012). (Ch. 1 & 2) Racial and ethnic groups (13th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Crisis of Kingfisher Airlines Essay

The Indian air market is estimated to be the ninth largest in the world but with the population size the country has, the Indian government believes it will become the world’s third largest market by 2020. 87 foreign and five Indian airlines fly to and from India to 40 countries. Approximately five million Indians fly every month domestically. Domestic traffic more than doubled between Jul-2006 and July 2011, with growth of 101%. One reason for the growth was the deregulation of Indian domestic aviation in 2003- 2004 followed by international deregulation in 2007-2008 India has three full service airlines Air India, Jet Airways, Kingfisher Airlines and four Low cost carriers: GoAir, IndiGo, JetLite (owned by Jet airways), and SpiceJet. Kingfisher also had a discount version: Kingfisher Red known formerly as Simplifly Deccan and before that Air Deccan. Ironically the Indian aviation despite a market growing at 18 per cent for last 11 months, five out of six Indian airlines are bleeding leading to the failure of one of the leading aviation player – Kingfisher Airlines. Kingfisher Airlines, a subsidiary of UB Group (United Breweries Holdings Ltd), founded in May 2005 operates a passenger airline in India. It was the first airline in India to provide premium first class service on domestic routes with all new aircraft. In May 2007, it announced it would acquire a 26% stake in Air Deccan, a low cost carrier (LCC) for 5.5 billion rupees ($135 million). Kingfisher Airlines Limited came to become one of the country’s largest airlines, operating more than 400 flights a day and having a wide network of destinations, with regional and long-haul international services touching almost 60 destinations. At one point the Kingfisher Airlines had the second largest share in India’s domestic air travel market. However due to the severe financial crisis faced by the airline, it has the fifth largest market share currently. Even the company have no funds to pay the salaries to the employees and is facing several other issues like fuel dues; aircraft lease rental dues, service tax dues and bank arrears. As Kingfisher airlines is in the midst of a financial turmoil, the case will aim to understand the various factors which are fuelling the growth / decline and those which are/will be critical for the company’s performance in the near term. Introduction History of the Indian Airline Industry In December 1912, the first domestic air route was opened between Delhi and Karachi by the Indian State Air Services (in collaboration with Imperial Airways of the UK). This marked a new beginning in India. Three years later, Tata Sons started a regular airmail service between Karachi and Madras. At that time, there were a few transport companies operating within and also beyond the frontiers of the country, carrying both air cargo and passengers. Some of these were Tata Airlines, Indian National Airways, Air Service of India, Deccan Airways, Ambica Airways, Bharat Airways and Mistry Airways. The Tata Airlines was converted into a public limited company in the year 1946 and renamed Air India Limited. In 1948 a joint sector company-Air India International was established by the Government of India and Air India headed by J.R.D. Tata. In 1953, the Parliament passed the Air Corporation Act. Air India International and Indian Airlines Corporation came into formal existence and Air India International was nationalized. The Indian Aviation sector was liberalized in commence in 1990 with private sector players being allowed to operate as air taxi operators in India. A number of private players commenced domestic operations like Damania, East-West, Modiluft, Air Sahara and NEPC, entered the industry. However, a decade later none of them have survived. Foreword of Kingfisher Airlines Kingfisher Airlines is an airline group based in India. Its head office is The Qube in Andheri (East), Mumbai; and Registered Office in UB City, Bangalore. Kingfisher Airlines was established in 2003 and began operations on 9 May 2005 with a fleet of five A380s, five Airbus A350s aircraft and five Airbus A330s operating its first inaugural flight from Mumbai to Delhi. It seems staggering that an airline a month old could order the world’s biggest plane in an untested market. They went international in 2008, less than four years ago. In May 2009, they became India’s largest airline by passenger numbers. Owned by the Bangalore based United Breweries Group. Kingfisher Airlines, through its parent company United Breweries Group, has a 50% stake in low-cost carrier Kingfisher Red. The UB group is lead by Dr. Vijay Mallya as the Chairman to one of India’s largest conglomerates with diverse interests in brewing, distilling, real estate, engineering, fertilizers, biotechnology, information technology and aviation. Dr. Mallya, was elected by shareholders as Chairman of The UB Group in 1983, at the age of 28 and has been instrumental in growing it into a multinational business conglomerate. Kingfisher is the only Indian and the one of the six in the world to have received the 6 stars rating for its services by the Skytrax operates more than 400 flights a day connecting 72 destinations the world over. Merger of Kingfisher- Air Deccan A wholly owned subsidiary of Deccan Aviation, Air Deccan, was India’s first low cost carrier. It has a vision to enable every Indian to fly thus representing the airline’s simple and no frills approach. With a low pricing strategy, Air Deccan primarily focussed on first time travellers and successfully shifted people from Rail travel to Air travel. Air Deccan airlines merged with Kingfisher Airlines and decided to operate as a single entity from April, 2008 under the title name – Kingfisher Aviation. The merger is based on recommendations of Accenture, the global consulting firm. KPMG was asked to do the valuation and the swap ratio was decided accordingly. The merger came through on as Vijay Mallya from Kingfisher airlines bought 26% of the stake in Air Deccan. The unification of the two carriers had to be sanctioned not only by the two panels, but also by the institutional investors, independent directors, and other shareholders. Air Deccan had four independent directors-which included prominent persons like IIM Prof Thiru Naraya, Tennis player Vijay Amritraj, and A K Ganguly, Former MD Nabisco Malaysia. Post merger, KingFisher would operate as a single largest (private) airline in the sub-continent with a combined fleet of 71 aircrafts, connects 70 destinations and operating 550 flights in a day. The combined entity has a market share of 33%. Captain Gopinath continued as the Executive Chairman and Vijay Malay in-charge as the Vice Chairman. To rationalize the fleet structure, Kingfisher was focussed towards the international routes and functioning as a full-service carrier while Air Deccan was allotted the wider domestic reach and operated as a low cost carrier. As both the carriers operated the Airbus, the operational synergies integrated not only the management and staff of the airlines but also the engineering, inventory management and ground handling services, maintenance and overhaul sectors. These efforts brought about an increased savings in costs by 4-5% (INR. 300 crores)* Further, by devising a more optimal routing strategy it could help in rationalizing the fares. Before the merger Air Deccan recorded a net loss of Rs 213.17 crores on revenue of Rs 437.82 crores for 2006-07. The company had also raised Rs 400 crores through an IPO in May 2006. The merger will create a more competitive business in scale and scope to emerge as market leader.

Epo in Sport

Competitive athletes are constantly in search of ways to get better, seeking a slight edge over their closest competition. They are willing to practice for countless hours, put themselves through rigorous training and follow a very strict diet. Those who are passionate about their sport are willing to do just about anything to improve performance, but just how far are athletes willing to go? With recent advancements in sports science, it has become possible to alter some elements of human physiology.The human body has been meticulously studied over the years, and as a result we are able to comprehend how complex systems function enabling the human body to perform simple everyday functions, as well as, impressive athletic performances. Science has discovered there are ways to improve the physiology of the human body to enhance athletic performance. By carefully tailoring specific functions to enhance a specific task an athlete will most likely be able to get the â€Å"one up† o n the competition.Science has also discovered there are dangers associated with tampering with these complex systems that keep the human body alive and well. Unfortunately, some athletes ignore the physiological risks/ professional repercussions and indulge in enhancing some physiological processes in order to gain a slight edge against the competition. Today, as well as in the past, various sporting organizations have had to deal with performance-enhancing issues through testing of their athletes, yet these people continue to seek out ways to sneak under the wire, undetected.One example of athletes trying to beat the system is that of the recently publicized performance-enhancing dispute with blood doping in the sport of cycling, namely the use of recombinant human erythropoietin (Robinson, Mangin, and Saugy 2003). The following will discuss the function of erythropoietin, its uses in medicine and athletics, the benefits and risks of artificial along with testing methods for detect ion of illegal use. In order to perform in endurance sports, efficient oxygen delivery from lungs to muscles is crucial.The cells responsible for oxygen delivery are erythrocytes, or red blood cells. The functional portion of the red blood cell that acts as an oxygen carrier is the protein molecule hemoglobin (Kraene, Fleck and Deschenes 2012). Hemoglobin is a four part haem-iron containing protein, with two alpha and two beta subunits associated with each molecule. Hemoglobin accounts for 99% of the protein composition of an erythrocyte (Lippi, Franchini, Salvengo et al). Circulating blood contains approximately 40-45% red blood cells in its composition (Kraene, Fleck and Deschenes 2012).The hemoglobin associated with each red blood cell has a specific mechanism for pick-up and delivery of oxygen. This mechanism depends on varying physiological body conditions during which oxygen has differing affinity for the hemoglobin molecule. The conditions at which affinity for oxygen is high include lower body temperature, low carbon dioxide, and low 2,3-diphosphoglyerate (Elliott 2008). As these are the conditions found in the lungs, plentiful oxygen will bind to the hemoglobin for transport to the tissue cells in the body.In the tissue where carbon dioxide concentrations are high, body temperature increases, higher hydrogen ion and ,2,3-disphosphoglycerate concentrations, oxygen affinity for hemoglobin is reduced, resulting in the delivery of oxygen to tissues (Elliott 2008). During physical exercise, the body's consumption of oxygen is increased due to the demand of working muscles. As a result of this process, the carrying capacity of hemoglobin is adjusted automatically to deliver adequate oxygen to the muscle tissues (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006).Applying this principle of supply and demand, to an endurance sport, one can see how an athlete’s aerobic training regime aims to peak the efficiency of the process of oxygen delivery from lungs to muscl e tissue. To maximize the process of oxygen delivery, a high number of circulating erythrocytes is desired, resulting in more available hemoglobin and therefore more oxygen can be delivered to working muscles. Red blood cell (RBC) production, called erythropoiesis, is carefully controlled and monitored by the body (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006).This monitoring system involves oxygen-sensing cells to detect hypoxia (low oxygen concentration) in the body. During oxygen deprivation, a nerurosecretory mechanism is activated through chemoreceptors found in the carotid body ( in the carotid artery found in the neck) and in the lungs. If out of balance, the body undergoes rapid cardiopulmonary adjustments to compensate for the current stress of hypoxia (Kraene, Fleck and Deschenes 2012). One of the factors present during hypoxia is the hypoxia inducible factor, HIF-1.This molecule acts as a transcription factor for controlling several genes (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). When oxygen levels are low, the enzymes that normally inhibit HIF-1 cease their activity. The HIF-1a molecule becomes available is now capable of binding with HIF-b to cross the nuclear membrane of the cell and promotes gene transcription (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). One of the main coding events that occurs as a result of the gene transcription is production of erythropoietin (Epo).This endogenous Epo is then produced in the body, specifically in the peritubular capillary-lining cells of the renal cortex of the kidneys, with minute amounts produced in the liver and brain (Kraene, Fleck and Deschenes 2012). When the Epo molecule is synthesized, the composition is initially a 193 amino acid molecule that eventually is released as a 165 amino acid protein with much of the total molecule composed of carbohydrate (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). The release of Epo from the kidney to the blood then stimulates erythropoiesis in the bone marrow (Kraene, Fleck and Desch enes 2012).Science advancements in the 1980’s have led to a synthetic form of Epo known as recombinant human Epo (rHuEpo) (Spedding and Spedding 2008). It was first introduced by a team of researchers at the Northwest Kidney Centres, who conducted clinical trials that resulted in the first successful artificial form of this hormone (Eichner 2007). The production of rHuEpo, from mammalian cells to treat anemic patients was approved by the U. S. Food and DrugAdministration in 1989 (Elliott 2008). Today human recombinant erythropoietin is available in a variety of forms.It is synthesized with an amino acid sequence identical to that of endogenous erythropoietin, with slight differences in composition of carbohydrate portions of the molecule (glycosylation) (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). Alpha and beta erythropoietin are produced from Chinese hamster ovary cells with the only differences being a slightly longer half-life and slight difference in molecular weight (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). Another form of Epo is Erythropoietin gamma. It is produced from a different host cell and as a result has a different glycosylation pattern (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006).Erythropoietin delta, yet another variation of the synthetic hormone, is the most recently introduced form. This type is produced from human cells, and has identical amino acid and glycosylation patterns as endogenous Epo, with a longer half-life of 18-20 hours compared to the 7-12 hour range of alpha and beta forms (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). The current research is clinically testing a protein called Continuous Erythropoietin Receptor Activator (CERA). This protein has a half-life of 133-137 hours, which equates to less frequent dosing.CERA unlike other synthetic forms of this hormone, has very mild side-effects and has yet to produce any serious adverse effects (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). This type of synthetic Epo may be the best option avail able for patients who require treatment for anemia (low hemoglobin levels). Unfortunately, some people suffer anemia due to various medical issues such as kidney disease, chemotherapy for cancer, HIV, blood loss, et cetera (Kraene, Fleck and Deschenes 2012). The body's demand for Epo becomes more significant when such medical conditions arise.Often times Epo needs to be artificially supplemented to compensate for the lowered hemoglobin production/ hemoglobin loss (Catlin, Fitch and Ljungqvist 2008). Originally, recombinant human erythropoietin was developed as a substitute for endogenous Epo for those who suffered from abnormal blood conditions. It is highly effective in increasing hemoglobin levels, and as a result has numerous benefits such as, reduction in required blood transfusions, restoring energy levels, increase in exercise capacity, improves cognitive function and overall quality of life improvement (Elliott 2008).When administering this hormone, the dose, frequency of adm inistration, the rate of rise of hemoglobin and target hemoglobin levels are strictly controlled (between 10-12g per 100mL), slightly lower than the range for normal range of 13-15g per 100mL. The lower range is maintained in order to keep the risks and side effects of the rHuEpo minimal (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). Careful monitoring and control is used to maximize the benefits for patients while minimizing the risks.Recombinant Epo not only benefits those who are suffering a blood condition but it has significant benefits to athletic performance (Elliott 2008). It is used illegally as an ergogenic aid primarily in endurance sports, such as cross-country skiing, track, swimming, and most notoriously, cycling (Bento, Damasceno, Neto 2003). One study, as noted in Exercise Physiology (Kraene, Fleck and Deschenes 2012), that involved well-trained male endurance athletes administered recombinant human erythropoietin 3 times a week for 30 days or until hematocrit levels reach ed 50%.The following resulted: an average hematocrit increase of 18. 9% (range of 42. 7-50. 8%), cycling time to exhaustion had increased 9. 4% (12. 8-14. 0 minutes longer), and cycling VO2 peak had increased 7% (range of 63. 8-68. 1 ml/kg/min). Another study also noted in Exercise Physiology (Kraene, Fleck and Deschenes 2012) gave low-dose subcutaneous injections of rHuEpo over a 6 week period to moderately to well-trained athletes and what resulted was a 6-8% increase in VO2 peak, time to exhaustion on a treadmill increased 13-17%, and hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit both increased by approximately 10% each.The use of recombinant human erythropoietin is found to have clear benefits in athletic performance, with higher trained individuals exhibiting enhanced results. At an elite level, where competition is so close, it is tempting for athletes to gain an edge over their competition though the use of rHuEpo. There is a certain amount of pressure on athletes in cycling to use ergogenic aids due to the fact that so many of the sport's top competitors are using it to boost performance (Vogel 2004). In cycling, the abuse of this ergogenic aid has recently come to light in the media.Although many benefits can be reaped in athletic performance from recombinant erythropoietin, it is not without risks. When synthetic forms were first introduced, many of the risks were unknown to athletes and use was not medically monitored as would be the case with an anemic patient. As a result, sudden heart attacks occurred that led to more than a dozen deaths of Dutch and Belgian cyclists (Vogel 2004). Their deaths were connected to inappropriate administration of rHuEpo. This form of Epo had not yet been clinically studied from an athletic perspective.The combination effect of increasing hemoglobin to well above normal range along with other factors associated with endurance sports, makes tampering with the body's natural blood physiology dangerous and potentially deadly ( Robinson, Magin and Saugy 2003). Myocardial infarction, cerebrovascular disease, transient ischemic attack and venous thromboembolism were all found to be potential events associated with the misuse of rHuEpo (Catlin, Fitch and Ljungqvist 2008). Due to the increase of red blood cells, the blood becomes more viscous and leads to an increased frequency risk of thrombotic events.There have also been proven reports of increased risk for migratory thrombophlebitis, microvascular thrombosis and thrombosis of cerebral sinuses, retinal artery, and temporal veins. The increased blood viscosity also increases systolic blood pressure during sub-maximal exercise and increases platelet reactivity resulting in risk of more blood clotting (Bento, Damasceno, and Neto 2003). One of the most serious risks found to be associated is that of red cell aplasia in which red blood cell formation ceases. Although rare but ife-threatening, this condition was found to be linked to the use of subcutaneous alpha -Epo (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). Anemia may also develop in individuals who mis-use rHuEpo after they discontinue the hormone, as it causes progressive erythroid marrow exhaustion due to prolonged periods of use. Some other risks and side effects include headache, muscle cramps, incomplete deviation of red blood cells, convulsion, and upper respiratory tract infections (Kraemer, Fleck and Deschenes 2012). The risks of using rHuEpo are more significant for athletes than average patients who are using for treatment.Athletes pushing to increase hemoglobin outside of a normal range run the risk of life-threatening circulatory/blood abnormalities. Testing for the use of banned erythropoietin in sports has been an ongoing challenge. As quickly as testing laboratories can produce testing methods for banned substances, new ways to slide under detection are being found (Cazzola 2000). It is difficult to directly identify rHuEpo as it has a relatively short half-life in most form s, for example an administration of 50 IU/kg given subcutaneously has a half-life of approximately 35. hours, and intravenous administration has a half-life ranging from 4 to 7 hours (Lippi, Franchini, Salvango et al 2006). Athletes could selectively time the administration of Epo and combined with concealing strategies to slip under the wire. As a result, laboratories are required to look at specific biomarkers that indicate past or current use of rHuEpo (Delanghe, Bollen and Beullens 2007). Human recombinant erythropoietin was initially a challenge to detect as various forms are extremely similar to that of endogenous Epo (Skibeli, Nissen-Lie and Torjesen 2001).As it is a rising issue in sport, laboratories are required to find better ways to detect the illegal use of rHuEpo. Initially as a measure to deter doping and identify usage, cutoff levels of hematocrit (the percentage of red blood cells in the blood) were established in some sports (Adamson and Vapnek 1991). For example, the International Cycling Union established cutoff hematocrit levels of 47% for women and 50% for men. This method was flawed, as it sometimes produced false positive results in athletes with naturally high hematocrit levels (Casoni, Ricci, Ballarin et al 1993).Currently, there is no foolproof testing method to detect the use of recombinant human erythropoietin. A combination of indirect and direct testing is currently the most effective method to identify blood dopers (Cazzola 2000). Indirect testing uses a blood sample and is based on the analysis of hematological parameters, including measures of hemoglobin, hematocrit, soluble transferrin receptors, serum Epo, percent reticulocytes, and macrocytes (Delanghe, Bollen and Beullens 2007).Changes observed in the above measures are often a result of introducing recombinant Epo to the body and can be used as an indirect marker to detect the substance (Skibeli, Nissen-Lie and Torjesen 2001). There is a reference range of parameters set for this form of testing, one indicating current use of Epo while the other can indicate recently discontinued use of Epo (Parisotto, Wu, Ashenden et al 2001). Indirect testing has the advantage of being able to detect Epo use several weeks after it has been administered, however the disadvantage of possibly producing false-positive results (Delanghe, Bollen and Beullens 2007).Changes in the measuring parameters used in indirect testing can also be the result of the body's natural modifications from training methods such as altitude training (increasing RBC levels due to lower oxygen at higher altitude, a naturally occurring body compensation) (Kraemer, Fleck and Deschenes 2012). Indirect testing is useful in being a primary indication of recombinant erythropoietin use, yet it is not completely reliable.If use of Epo is suspected after using indirect testing methods, direct testing will follow to confirm or deny the results (Birkeland and Hemmersbach 1999). Direct testing for recomb inant Epo involves the collection of a urine sample. The urine sample needs to be fairly large (20ml) and strongly concentrated (between 700-1000 fold) (Elliott 2008). The approved test that uses the direct approach is based on differences in glycosylation between endogenous Epo and artificial forms (Elliott 2008).The recombinant and endogenous forms of erythropoietin have varying isoelectric points (pI). Using isoelectric focusing (IEF), the isoelectric points can be determined (Skibeli, Nissen-Lie and Torjesen 2001). The normal range for the pI of endogenous Epo is 3. 7-4. 7, while alpha and beta Epo have a slightly higher range of 4. 4-5. 1. The Aransep form of Epo has 2 extra N-glycosylaton sites in order to increase its stability, resulting in a pI range of 3. 7-4 (Parisotto, Wu, Ashenden et al 2001).In order to see the isoforms of Epo, double immunoblotting is used in combination with monoclonal anti-Epo antibodies. The interaction of the antibodies with the recombinant forms of Epo shows if illegal forms are present in the urine (Skibeli, Nissen-Lie and Torjesen 2001). The purpose of the double immunoblotting technique is to avoid secondary antibodies interacting with proteins in urine and affect the test. A technique known as chemiluminescence is used on the blot to image the Epo (Skibeli, Nissen-Lie and Torjesen 2001).Direct testing can detect most forms synthetic Epo. When a test is found to be positive for an illegal form of Epo, a second test is performed due to the fact that occasionally enzyme activity causes a shift in the electrophoretic banding pattern of the molecule (Parisotto, Wu, Ashenden et al 2001). Additional stability testing is performed where the urine sample is incubated overnight in an acetate buffer and rHuEpo. If a banding shift is observed during the isoelectric focusing, it can be determined that the sample is negative for rHuEpo (Parisotto, Wu, Ashenden et al 2001).The direct testing method is currently the most reliable and a pproved approach and can be used during competition and off-competition periods (Elliott 2008). The development of recombinant human erythropoietin was originally an approach to treat low hemoglobin levels in anemic patients. The athletic gains that can be exhibited through introducing rHuEpo have caused abuse at the elite level in many sports. Other than disqualification and loss of credibility as an honest athlete, there are also medical risks associated with tampering with the blood's physiology in artificial ways.A combination of testing methods is currently used to identify those using rHuEpo as an ergogenic aid, as there is no single test that can clearly deny of confirm use. New ways to slip under the wire with testing are being discovered and used by athletes and laboratories are constantly working to keep up. The use of recombinant human erythropoietin is a serious issue of misconduct in sport and needs to be ended in order to keep competition ethical and fair.